1. Key Points Summary of the Parliamentary Library Article on School Refusal

Parliamentary Library Article on School Refusal

We found this excellent and thoroughly substantiated article on School Refusal, in the Parliamentary Library, written by Dr Shannon Clark of the Social Policy Section (19 April 2023). The article references studies and data from various sources, including Australian government reports, international literature, and academic research. The Parliamentary Library “serves as a trusted source of information, analysis and advice for the Australian Parliament. Its services are confidential, impartial, and offered on an equal basis to all parliamentarians, parliamentary committees, and to staff acting on their behalf. The Library is part of the Department of Parliamentary Services”.

Key Points Summary

The article provides an in-depth exploration of school refusal, a complex issue characterised by a child or young person’s emotional distress at the thought of attending school. It distinguishes school refusal from other forms of school attendance problems, such as truancy, school withdrawal, and school exclusion, and examines its prevalence, contributing factors, impacts, and strategies to address the issue. The article draws on both Australian and international literature, with a particular focus on recent trends following the COVID-19 pandemic.

Key Points:

1. Definition and Characteristics of School Refusal:

- School refusal is defined as a type of attendance problem where a student experiences significant emotional distress about attending school, which can manifest as anxiety, fear, depression, or physical symptoms like headaches and stomach aches.
- Unlike truancy, school refusal is characterised by parental awareness of the absence and efforts to encourage school attendance. It is also different from school withdrawal (motivated by parents) and school exclusion (resulting from school-based decisions).
- The behaviours associated with school refusal can vary widely, from reluctance to attend to complete absence, often involving severe emotional upset.

2. Prevalence and Trends:

- - The prevalence of school refusal in Australian and international literature is estimated at 1% to 5% of all students. However, it is higher among students with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
  - Recent data shows an increase in school refusal rates globally, attributed partly to the COVID-19 pandemic, which exacerbated factors such as anxiety and social withdrawal. In Australia, reports suggest that the prevalence of school refusal has doubled or even tripled in some areas since the pandemic began.

3. School Attendance Trends in Australia:

- Australian school attendance has been trending downwards for several years, with a noticeable decline in 2022. The attendance rate for students in Years 1-10 was 86.5% in 2022, compared to 90.9% in 2021. Similarly, the attendance level, which measures the proportion of students attending 90% or more of the time, dropped from 71.2% in 2021 to 49.9% in 2022.
- Attendance rates and levels vary significantly across different demographics, including year groups, geographic locations, Indigenous and non-Indigenous students, and different school sectors (government, Catholic, and independent).

4. Drivers of School Refusal:

- School refusal is influenced by a combination of individual, family, school, and community factors:
  - Individual Factors: Psychological issues (e.g., anxiety, depression), developmental disorders (e.g., ASD, ADHD), physical health problems, and substance abuse.
  - Family Factors: Family structure and functioning, socio-economic disadvantage, parental health issues, and overprotective parenting.
  - School Factors: Poor classroom management, failure to prevent or manage bullying, transitions between schools or school years, and changes in pedagogical practices.
  - Community Factors: Societal pressures to achieve academically, perceptions of threats, and neighbourhood characteristics, such as poverty or lack of transport.

5. Consequences of Long-Term School Refusal and Absenteeism:

- School refusal can negatively impact a student’s academic performance, social and emotional development, and mental health, potentially leading to early school leaving and long-term issues like social isolation, mental health disorders, and reduced economic opportunities.
- It also causes significant stress and conflict within families and creates challenges for schools and teachers, who must balance managing absenteeism with supporting the student’s return to school and maintaining the regular pace of classroom instruction .
- Chronic absenteeism has broader effects on classroom dynamics and can reduce academic outcomes for other students due to disruptions and the need for remediation efforts.

6. Addressing School Refusal and Absenteeism:

- A multi-tiered approach is recommended, focusing on:
  - Tier 1: Universal prevention strategies to promote attendance and prevent absenteeism for all students.
  - Tier 2: Targeted early intervention strategies for students showing signs of emerging or moderate absenteeism.
  - Tier 3: Intensive intervention strategies for students with chronic and severe absenteeism.
- The article criticises punitive approaches (e.g., legal penalties for parents) as ineffective, noting that they do not address the root causes of absenteeism. Instead, it advocates for positive family processes, supportive school environments, and flexible, individualised interventions.

7. Challenges in Addressing School Refusal:

- School refusal is challenging to address due to its complex nature and the interplay of multiple contributing factors. Additionally, there is a disparity in access to resources and support services between families of different socio-economic backgrounds.
- Federalism in Australia adds complexity to developing a national approach to school refusal, given the varied responsibilities and policies across states and territories.
- There is a need for more research into the causes of school refusal and the reasons for variation in attendance rates across states and territories, as well as adequate resources to support students’ return to school and ensure their wellbeing and learning continuity.

8. Conclusion:

- The article highlights the need for a nuanced understanding of school refusal and a multi-faceted, evidence-based approach to address it. With attendance rates declining and a growing number of students affected, schools, families, and policymakers must collaborate to develop effective strategies.
- The recent trends underscore the urgency for targeted interventions and a rethinking of punitive measures, focusing instead on holistic support systems that address the underlying causes of school refusal.

Additional Insights:

The article references studies and data from various sources, including Australian government reports, international literature, and academic research, to provide a well-rounded view of the issue.
It also notes the importance of early intervention, acknowledging that the longer a child stays out of school, the more challenging it becomes to reintegrate them.
The need for greater equity in accessing resources and support services is emphasised, particularly for disadvantaged families who may lack the means to manage school refusal effectively.

By addressing these points comprehensively, the article calls for a balanced approach to handling school refusal, one that recognises both the individual needs of students and the broader systemic factors at play.

The National Trend of School Refusal and Related Matters

We recently reviewed the full report from The National Trend of School Refusal and Related Matters inquiry, conducted by the Australian Senate’s Education and Employment References Committee, and chaired by Senator Matt O’Sullivan. To help you quickly familiarise yourself with the report, we’ve summarised Chapters 2 to 6 in this blog series (Chapter 1 covers the inquiry’s purpose and scope).

Introduction: Parliamentary Library Article on School Refusal
Chapter 2 – School refusal in Australia
Chapter 3 – The impact of school refusal
Chapter 4 – Addressing school refusal: the need for a national approach
Chapter 5 – Addressing school refusal: other barriers and opportunities
Chapter 6 – Committee view

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References used in the Parliamentary Library article summarised above are:

Julia Martin Burch, ‘School Refusal: When a Child Won’t Go to School’, Harvard Health Publishing (blog), 18 September 2018.

For example, see David Heyne et al., ‘Differentiation between School Attendance Problems: Why and How?’, Cognitive and Behavioural Practice 26, no. 1 (February 2019): 8–34.

Murray Evely and Zoe Ganim, School Refusal (Revised), excerpt, Psych4Schools, n.d.

Jill Sewell, ‘School Refusal’, Australian Family Physician 37, no. 4 (April 2008): 406–408; Trude Havik and Jo Magne Ingul, ‘How to Understand School Refusal’, Frontiers in Education 6, no. 715177 (September 2021).

Vasiliki Totsika et al., ‘Types and Correlates of School Non-attendance in Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders’, Autism 27, no. 7 (October 2020): 1639–49; Dawn Adams, ‘Child and Parental Mental Health as Correlates of School Non-attendance and School Refusal in Children on the Autism Spectrum’, Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 52, no.8 (August 2022): 3353–3365.

For example, Karen Black, ‘Could Your Teen Refusing to Go to School be a Sign of Mental Health Disability?’ Toronto Star, 21 February 2023; ‘Breakdown of Routines During Pandemic Lead to Record School Absenteeism in Japan’, Japan Data (Nippon.com), 5 December 2022; Jillian Jorgensen, ‘For Some Chronically Absent Students, the Problem is School Refusal’, Spectrum News—NY1, 2 March 2023.

For example, Matilda Marozzi, ‘School Refusal Almost Triples Since COVID-19 Lockdowns, Say Parents and Expert’, ABC News, 12 March 2021.

Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA), ‘Student Attendance’, National Report on Schooling in Australia—Data Portal, Time Series.

Centre for Education Statistics and Evaluation (CESE), Understanding Attendance – A Review of the Drivers of School Attendance and Best Practice Approaches, (Sydney: NSW Department of Education, 2022), 11.

Jodi Richardson, ‘School Refusal: What You Can Do to Help’, Dr Jodi Richardson (blog), 24 June 2019; Evely and Ganim, School Refusal (Revised).

Brandy Maynard et al., ‘Treatment for School Refusal among Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta‑analysis’, Research on Social Work Practice 28, no. 1 (2018): 56.

Maynard et al., ‘Treatment for School Refusal among Children and Adolescents’, 57.

Sophie Black, ‘“Families Can Fall Apart over This Stuff”: The Children Refusing to Go to School’, Guardian, 26 September 2022.

See, for example, Sophie Black, ‘“No one Really Knows”: Senate Inquiry into School Refusal Told First Step is to Track “Invisible” Students’, Guardian, 25 February 2023, 1; Adam Carey and Madeleine Heffernan, ‘More Students Refusing to Go to School Post Pandemic’, Age, 2 February 2023; Penny Allman-Payne, Reference: Education and Employment References Committee—School Refusal, Senate, Debates, 27 October 2022, 1722.

Burch, ‘School Refusal: When a Child Won’t Go to School’.

Burch; Heyne et al., ‘Differentiation Between School Attendance Problems’.

Heyne et al.

Havik and Ingul, ‘How to Understand School Refusal’: 7.

Sergejeff, T. Pilbacka-Rönkä, and H. Mantila, School Refusal: A Small Guide to Supporting School Attendance, Tuuve and Monni Online Projects, n.d.

See, for example, ‘School Can’t, A National Crisis We Can No Longer Ignore’, Living on the Spectrum (blog), 23 January 2023; ‘School Phobia/School Refusal’, Encyclopedia of Children’s Health; ‘Emotionally Based School Avoidance (EBSA)’, Support Services for Education (UK).

Sewell, ‘School Refusal’; Havik and Ingul, ‘How to Understand School Refusal’;,South Eastern Sydney Local Health District (SESLHD), School Refusal—Every School Day Counts, (Sydney: SESLHD, 2014), 3.

SESLHD, School Refusal, 3.

Totsika et al. ‘Types and Correlates of School Non-attendance in Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders’.

Adams, ‘Child and Parental Mental Health as Correlates of School Non-attendance and School Refusal in Children on the Autism Spectrum’: 3358.

Brett Henebery, ‘Improving Student Attendance Starts with a Sense of Belonging – Expert’, The Educator, 15 November 2022.

Marozzi, ‘School Refusal Almost Triples since COVID-19 Lockdowns’.

See Black, ‘Could Your Teen Refusing to Go to School be a Sign of Mental Health Disability?’; ‘Breakdown of Routines During Pandemic Lead to Record School Absenteeism in Japan’; Jorgensen, ‘For Some Chronically Absent Students, the Problem is School Refusal’.

Office for Standards in Education, Children’s Services and Skills (OFSTED), Securing Good Attendance and Tackling Persistent Absence, (London: OFSTED, 2022).

Allman-Payne, Reference: Education and Employment References Committee, 1722.

Senate Education and Employment Committee, ‘The National Trend of School Refusal and Related Matters’, Inquiry homepage, Parliament of Australia.

Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA), National Report on Schooling in Australia 2021, (Sydney: ACARA, 2023), 29.

ACARA, ‘Student Attendance’, National Report on Schooling in Australia—Data Portal.

Jim Watterston and Megan O’Connell, Those who Disappear, (Melbourne: University of Melbourne, 2019).

Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL), Spotlight—Attendance Matters, (Sydney: AITSL, 2019), 4.

ACARA, ‘Student Attendance’, National Report on Schooling in Australia—Data Portal, Time Series.

ACARA, ‘Student Attendance’, Time Series.

AITSL, Spotlight—Attendance Matters, 5.

ACARA, ‘Student Attendance’, School year by state/territory.

AITSL, Spotlight—Attendance Matters, 6.

ACARA, ‘Student Attendance’, School year by state/territory.

AITSL, Spotlight—Attendance Matters, 7.

ACARA, ‘Student Attendance’, Indigenous Status by State/Territory.

ACARA, ‘Student Attendance’, School Sector by State/Territory.

Richardson, ‘School Refusal: What You Can Do to Help’; see also ‘School Refusal (Revised)’, Psych4Schools.

Maynard et al., ‘Treatment for School Refusal among Children and Adolescents’, 56; Joanne Garfi, Overcoming School Refusal, (Samford Valley, QLD: Australian Academic Press, 2018), 2.

Christopher Kearney, ‘School Absenteeism and School Refusal Behavior in Youth: A Contemporary Review’, Clinical Psychology Review 28, (2008): 451–471; St. Joseph, et al., School Refusal: Assessment and Intervention, (Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports, 2022), 3–4.

Statped (coordinating organisation), Problematic School Absenteeism—Improving Systems and Tools, (Erasmus+ Strategic Partnerships, 2021), 15–16.

Roisin Devenney and Catriona O’Toole, ‘”What Kind of Education System Are We Offering”: The Views of Education Professionals on School Refusal’, International Journal of Educational Psychology 10, no. 1, (February 2021): 29.

Devenney and O’Toole, ‘”What Kind of Education System Are We Offering”’, 29.

Maynard et al., 57; Black, “Families Can Fall Apart over This Stuff”.

Christopher Kearney, Carolina Gonzálvez, Patricia Gracczyk and Mirae Fornander, ‘Reconciling Contemporary Approaches to School Attendance and School Absenteeism: Toward Promotion and Nimble Response, Global Policy Review and Implementation, and Future Adaptability (Part 1)’, Frontiers in Psychology 10, no. 2222 (October 2019): 2; Mandy Allison and Elliott Attisha, ‘The Link between School Attendance and Good Health’, Pediatrics 143, no. 2, (February 2019), e20183648.

Kristen Hancock, Carrington Shepherd, David Lawrence and Stephen Zubrick, Student Attendance and Educational Outcomes: Every Day Counts, Report prepared for Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations, (Perth: Telethon Institute for Child Health Research and Centre for Child Health Research, University of Western Australia, 2013), v.

Michael Gottfried, ‘Chronic Absenteeism in the Classroom Context: Effects on Achievement’, Urban Education 54, no. 1, (December 2015): 3–34.

Jess Whitley and Beth Saggers, ‘School Attendance Problems Are Complex and Our Solutions Need to Be as Well’, Conversation, 1 November 2022.

See ‘How schools are funded’, Australian Government Department of Education website.

For example, see Statped, Problematic School Absenteeism—Improving Systems and Tools; CESE, Understanding Attendance.

Black, ”Families Can Fall Apart Over This Stuff”; Adam Langenberg, ‘Mental Health Issues Described as “Key Driver of Non‑attendance”, as Students Stay Away from Schools’, ABC News, 7 February 2023.

Tamsin Rose, ‘Early Interventions ”Missed” as NSW Struggles with Shortage of School Counsellors’, Guardian, 8 October 2022; see also, Lisa Wachsmuth, ‘”We Must Pick up the Kids We Can Help”’, Sunday Telegraph, 27 November 2022.

Australian Psychological Society (APS), The Framework for Effective Delivery of School Psychology Services: A Practice Guide for Psychologists and School Leaders, APS Professional Practice (APS, 2016), 30–1.

Geoff Gallop, Tricia Kavanagh and Patrick Lee, Valuing the Teaching Profession—An Independent Inquiry, (Sydney: NSW Teachers Federation, 2021), 11.

Whitley and Saggers, ‘School Attendance Problems are complex’; Jane Sundius, ‘Reducing Chronic Absence Requires Problem Solving and Support, Not Blame and Punishment’, Attendance Works (blog), 4 April 2018.

Whitley and Saggers, ‘School attendance problems Are Complex’; Kristen Hancock, Michael Gottfried and Stephen Zubrick, ‘Does the Reason Matter? How Student-reported Reasons for School Absence Contribute to Differences in Achievement Outcomes among 14–15 Year Olds’, British Educational Research Journal 44, no. 1 (February 2018): 141–174.

Hancock et al., ‘Does the Reason Matter?’, 142.

Matthew Bach, ‘Opinion: School Refusers Need to Receive Tough Love’, Age, 31 January 2023.

Christine Grové and Alexandra Marinucci, ‘You Can’t Fix School Refusal with “Tough Love” but These Steps Might Help’, Conversation, 6 February 2023.

Sallyanne Marlow and Neelofar Rehman, ‘The Relationship between Family Processes and School Absenteeism and Dropout: A Meta-analysis’, Educational and Developmental Psychologist 38, no. 1, (2021): 3–23.

Marlow and Rehman, ‘The Relationship between Family Processes and School Absenteeism and Dropout: A Meta-analysis’, 12.

Shannon Clark, COVID-19: Chronology of State and Territory Announcements on Schools and Early Childhood Education in 2020, Research paper series, 2021–22 (Canberra: Parliamentary Library, 2022).

Education Ministers Meeting, Communique, 27 February 2023.